The Clergy-Penitent Privilege—Miscellaneous Issues

Pastor, Church & Law

by Richard R. Hammar, J.D., LL.M., CPA

The Clergy-Penitent Privilege—Miscellaneous Issues §3.08

There are a number of miscellaneous issues associated with the clergy-penitent privilege that are addressed in the following subsections.

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1Definitions and Status
- § 1.01Distinctions Between the Terms Pastor, Clergy, Minister
- § 1.02Definition of the Terms Pastor, Clergy, Minister — In General
- § 1.03Status—Employee or Self Employed
  - § 1.03.01Social Security
  - § 1.03.02Income Taxes
  - § 1.03.03Retirement Plans
  - § 1.03.04Legal Liability
  - § 1.03.05Miscellaneous Federal and State Statutes
- § 1.04Status—Ordained, Commissioned, or Licensed
2The Pastor-Church Relationship
- § 2.01Initiating the Relationship—In General
  - § 2.01.01Congregational Churches
  - § 2.01.02Hierarchical Churches
  - § 2.01.03Compliance with a Church's Governing Instrument in the Selection of a Minister
  - § 2.01.04Civil Court Review of Clergy Selection Disputes—the General Rule of Non-Intervention
  - § 2.01.05Civil Court Review of Clergy Selection Disputes—Limited Exceptions to the General Rule
  - § 2.01.06Negligent Selection
- § 2.02The Contract
- § 2.03Compensation
- § 2.04Termination
3Authority, Rights, and Privileges
- § 3.01General Scope of a Minister's Authority
- § 3.02Officer of the Church Corporation
- § 3.03Property Matters
- § 3.04Performance of Marriage Ceremonies
- § 3.05Exemption from Military Duty
- § 3.06Exemption From Jury Duty
- § 3.07The Clergy-Penitent Privilege—In General
  - § 3.07.01A "Communication"
  - § 3.07.02Made in Confidence
  - § 3.07.03To a Minister
  - § 3.07.04Acting in a Professional Capacity as a Spiritual Adviser
  - § 3.07.05In the Course of Discipline
- § 3.08The Clergy-Penitent Privilege—Miscellaneous Issues
  - § 3.08.01Clergy-Parishioner Relationship
  - § 3.08.02Marriage Counseling
  - § 3.08.03Who May Assert the Privilege
  - § 3.08.04When to Assert the Privilege
  - § 3.08.05Waiver of the Privilege
  - § 3.08.06The Privilege in Federal Courts
  - § 3.08.07Constitutionality of the Privilege
  - § 3.08.08Child Abuse Reporting
  - § 3.08.09Confidentiality
  - § 3.08.10Disclosure to Civil Authorities
  - § 3.08.11Church Records
  - § 3.08.12Death of the Counselee
- § 3.09Visiting Privileges at Penal Institutions
- § 3.10Immigration of Alien Ministers, Religious Vocations, and Religious Occupations
- § 3.11Miscellaneous Benefits
4Liabilities, Limitations, and Restrictions
- § 4.01Negligence
- § 4.02Defamation—In General
  - § 4.02.01Pastors Who Are Sued for Making Defamatory Statements
  - § 4.02.02Pastors Who Are Victims of Defamation
  - § 4.02.03Defenses
- § 4.03Undue Influence
- § 4.04Invasion of Privacy
- § 4.05Clergy Malpractice
- § 4.06Contract Liability
- § 4.07Securities Law Violations
- § 4.08Failure to Report Child Abuse
- § 4.09Diversion of Church Funds
- § 4.10State Regulation of Psychologists and Counselors
- § 4.11Sexual Misconduct
  - § 4.11.01Theories of Liability
  - § 4.11.02Defenses to Liability
5Definitions
- § 5.01Tax Legislation—Federal
  - § 5.01.01Churches
  - § 5.01.02Mail Order Churches
  - § 5.01.03Other Religious Organizations
  - § 5.01.04Tax Legislation—State
- § 5.02Zoning Law
  - § 5.02.01Churches
  - § 5.02.02Accessory Uses
6Organization and Administration
- § 6.01Unincorporated Associations
  - § 6.01.01Characteristics
  - § 6.01.02Personal Liability of Members
  - § 6.01.03Creation and Administration
- § 6.02Corporations
  - § 6.02.01The Incorporation Process
  - § 6.02.02Charters, Constitutions, Bylaws, and Resolutions
- § 6.03Church Records
  - § 6.03.01Inspection
  - § 6.03.02“Accountings” of Church Funds
  - § 6.03.03Public Inspection of Tax-Exemption Applications
  - § 6.03.04Government Inspection of Donor and Membership Lists
  - § 6.03.05The Church Audit Procedures Act
  - § 6.03.06Who Owns a Church’s Accounting Records?
- § 6.04Reporting Requirements
  - § 6.04.01State Law
  - § 6.04.02Federal Law
- § 6.05Church Names
- § 6.06Officers, Directors, and Trustees—In General
  - § 6.06.01Election or Appointment
  - § 6.06.02Authority
  - § 6.06.03Meetings
  - § 6.06.04Removal
- § 6.07Officers, Directors, and Trustees—Personal Liability
  - § 6.07.01Tort Liability
  - § 6.07.02Contract Liability
  - § 6.07.03Breach of the Fiduciary Duty of Care
  - § 6.07.04Breach of the Fiduciary Duty of Loyalty
  - § 6.07.05Violation of Trust Terms
  - § 6.07.06Securities Law
  - § 6.07.07Wrongful Discharge of an Employee
  - § 6.07.08Willful Failure to Withhold Taxes
  - § 6.07.09Exceeding the Authority of the Board
  - § 6.07.10Loans to Directors
- § 6.08Immunity Statutes
  - § 6.08.01Directors and Officers Insurance
- § 6.09Members—In General
  - § 6.09.01Selection and Qualifications
  - § 6.09.02Authority
- § 6.10Members—Discipline and Dismissal
  - § 6.10.01Judicial Nonintervention
  - § 6.10.02“Marginal” Civil Court Review
  - § 6.10.03Preconditions to Civil Court Review
  - § 6.10.04Remedies for Improper Discipline or Dismissal
- § 6.11Members—Personal Liability
- § 6.12Meetings of Members
  - § 6.12.01Procedural Requirements
  - § 6.12.02Minutes
  - § 6.12.03Parliamentary Procedure
  - § 6.12.04Effect of Procedural Irregularities
  - § 6.12.05Judicial Supervision of Church Elections
  - § 6.12.06Who May Attend
- § 6.13Powers of a Local Church
- § 6.14Merger and Consolidation
- § 6.15Dissolution
7Church Property
- § 7.01Church Property Disputes—In General
- § 7.02Church Property Disputes—Supreme Court Rulings
- § 7.03State and Lower Federal Court Rulings
  - § 7.03.01Congregational Churches
  - § 7.03.02Hierarchical Churches—the Compulsory Deference Rule
  - § 7.03.03Hierarchical Churches—Neutral Principle of Law
- § 7.04Church Property Disputes—Dispute Resolution Procedures
- § 7.05Transferring Church Property
- § 7.06Zoning Law
  - § 7.06.01The Majority View: Churches May Build in Residential Zones
  - § 7.06.02The Minority View: The Government May Restrict Church Construction in Residential Zones
  - § 7.06.03Legal Remedies Available to Churches
  - § 7.06.04The Religious Land Use and Institutionalized Persons Act (RLUIPA)
- § 7.07Restricting Certain Activities Near Church Property
- § 7.08Building Codes
  - § 7.08.01Lead Paint on Church Property
- § 7.09Nuisance
- § 7.10Landmarking
- § 7.11Eminent Domain
- § 7.12Defacing Church Property
- § 7.13Restrictive Covenants
- § 7.14Reversion of Church Property to the Prior Owner
- § 7.15Materialmen’s Liens
- § 7.16Religious Discrimination in the Sale or Rental of Church Property
- § 7.17Removing Disruptive Individuals
- § 7.18Adverse Possession
- § 7.19Accounting for Depreciation
- § 7.20Premises Liability
  - § 7.20.01Liability Based on Status as Invitee, Licensee, or Trespasser
  - § 7.20.02Defenses to Premises Liability
  - § 7.20.03Use of Church Property by Outside Groups
  - § 7.20.04Assaults on Church Property
  - § 7.20.05Skate Ramps
  - § 7.20.06Sound Rooms
- § 7.21Embezzlement
- § 7.22Places of Public Accommodation
8Employment Law
- § 8.01Introduction: Selection of Employees
- § 8.02New Hire Reporting
- § 8.03Employment Eligibility Verification
- § 8.04Immigration
- § 8.05Negligent Selection
- § 8.06Introduction: Compensation and Benefits
- § 8.07Workers Compensation
  - § 8.07.01Treatment of Churches
  - § 8.07.02Compensating Employees Who Are Receiving Workers Compensation Benefits
  - § 8.07.03Dismissing Employees for Filing a Workers Compensation Claim
- § 8.08Fair Labor Standards Act
  - § 8.08.01Enterprises
  - § 8.08.02Individual Coverage
  - § 8.08.03Federal Court Rulings
  - § 8.08.04Department of Labor Opinion Letters
  - § 8.08.05Exemptions
  - § 8.08.06Ministers
  - § 8.08.07State Laws
  - § 8.08.08Case Studies
- § 8.09Introduction to Federal Employment and Civil Rights Laws—The “Commerce” Requirement
  - § 8.09.01Counting Employees
- § 8.10The “Ministerial Exception” under State and Federal Employment Laws
  - § 8.10.01Cases Recognizing the Ministerial Exception
  - § 8.10.02Cases Not Recognizing the Ministerial Exception
- § 8.11Procedure for Establishing a Discrimination Claim
- § 8.12Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964
  - § 8.12.01Application to Religious Organizations
  - § 8.12.02Application to Religious Educational Institutions
  - § 8.12.03Religion as a "Bona Fide Occupational Qualification"
  - § 8.12.04Discrimination Based on Religion or Morals
  - § 8.12.05Sexual Harassment
  - § 8.12.06The Catholic Bishop Case
  - § 8.12.07Failure to Accommodate Employees’ Religious Practices
  - § 8.12.08The Religious Freedom Restoration Act
  - § 8.12.09The Civil Rights Act of 1991
- § 8.13The Age Discrimination in Employment Act
- § 8.14The Americans with Disabilities Act
  - § 8.14.01Discrimination in Employment
  - § 8.14.02Discrimination in Public Accommodations
- § 8.15Family and Medical Leave Act
- § 8.16Employer “Retaliation” Against Victims of Discrimination
- § 8.17Discrimination Based on Military Status
- § 8.18Employee Polygraph Protection Act
- § 8.19Occupational Safety and Health Act
- § 8.20Display of Posters
- § 8.21Discrimination under State Laws
  - § 8.21.01General Employment Discrimination Laws
  - § 8.21.02Discrimination Based on Sexual Orientation
  - § 8.21.03Discrimination Based on Use of Legal Substances
- § 8.22Termination of Employees
  - § 8.22.01Severance Agreements
- § 8.23National Labor Relations Act
- § 8.24Reference Letters
- § 8.25Employee Evaluations
- § 8.26Employment Interviews
- § 8.27Arbitration
- § 8.28Employee Handbooks
- § 8.29Employee Privacy
- § 8.30Insurance
9Government Regulation of Churches
- § 9.01Introduction
- § 9.02Regulation of Charitable Solicitations
- § 9.03Limitations on Charitable Giving
- § 9.04Federal and State Securities Law
- § 9.05Copyright Law
  - § 9.05.01Copyright Ownership
  - § 9.05.02Works Made for Hire
  - § 9.05.03Exclusive Rights
  - § 9.05.04Infringement
  - § 9.05.05The "Religious Service" Exemption to Copyright Infringement
  - § 9.05.06Electronic Media
  - § 9.05.10Other Exceptions to Copyright Infringement
- § 9.06Government Investigations
- § 9.07Judicial Resolution of Church Disputes
- § 9.08Political Activities by Churches and Other Religious Organizations
- § 9.09Bankruptcy Law
10Church Legal Liability
- § 10.01Negligence as a Basis for Liability—In General
- § 10.02Vicarious Liability (Respondeat Superior)
  - § 10.02.01The Requirement of Employee Status
  - § 10.02.02Negligent Conduct
  - § 10.02.03Course of Employment
  - § 10.02.04Inapplicability to Nonprofit Organizations
- § 10.03Negligent Selection of Church Workers—In General
- § 10.04Negligent Selection of Church Workers—Sexual Misconduct Cases Involving Minor Victims
  - § 10.04.01Court Decisions Recognizing Negligent Selection Claims
  - § 10.04.02Court Decisions Rejecting Negligent Selection Claims
  - § 10.04.03Risk Management
  - § 10.04.04The Relevance of Sexual Orientation in Selecting Youth or Children’s Workers
- § 10.05Negligent Selection of Church Workers—Sexual Misconduct Cases Involving Adult Victims
  - § 10.05.01Court Decisions Recognizing Negligent Selection Claims
  - § 10.05.02Court Decisions Rejecting Negligent Selection Claims
  - § 10.05.03Risk Management
- § 10.06Negligent Selection of Church Workers—Other Cases
- § 10.07Negligent Retention of Church Workers—In General
  - § 10.07.01Court Decisions Recognizing Negligent Retention Claims
  - § 10.07.02Court Decisions Rejecting Negligent Retention Claims
  - § 10.07.03Risk Management
- § 10.08Negligent Supervision of Church Workers—In General
- § 10.09Negligent Supervision of Church Workers—Sexual Misconduct Cases Involving Minor Victims
  - § 10.09.01Court Decisions Recognizing Negligent Supervision Claims
  - § 10.09.02Court Decisions Rejecting Negligent Supervision Claims
  - § 10.09.03Risk Management
- § 10.10Negligent Supervision of Church Workers—Sexual Misconduct Cases Involving Adult Victims
  - § 10.10.01Court Decisions Recognizing Negligent Supervision Claims
  - § 10.10.02Court Decisions Rejecting Negligent Supervision Claims
  - § 10.10.03Risk Management
- § 10.11Negligent Supervision of Church Workers—Other Cases
  - § 10.11.01Risk Management
- § 10.12Counseling—In General
  - § 10.12.01Risk Management
- § 10.13Breach of a Fiduciary Duty
  - § 10.13.01Court Decisions Recognizing Fiduciary Duty Claims
  - § 10.13.02Court Decisions Rejecting Fiduciary Duty Claims
  - § 10.13.03Risk Management
- § 10.14Ratification
- § 10.15Defamation
- § 10.16Defenses to Liability
  - § 10.16.01Contributory and Comparative Negligence
  - § 10.16.02Assumption of Risk
  - § 10.16.03Intervening Cause
  - § 10.16.04Statutes of Limitations
  - § 10.16.05Charitable Immunity
  - § 10.16.06Release Forms
  - § 10.16.07Insurance
  - § 10.16.08Other Defenses
- § 10.17Damages—In General
  - § 10.17.01Punitive Damages
  - § 10.17.02Duplicate Verdicts
- § 10.18Denominational Liability—In General
  - § 10.18.01Court Decisions Recognizing Vicarious Liability
  - § 10.18.02Court Decisions Rejecting Vicarious Liability
  - § 10.18.03Defenses to Liability
  - § 10.18.04Risk Management
  - § 10.18.05The Legal Effect of a Group Exemption Ruling
- § 10.19Risks Associated with Cell Phones
- § 10.20Risks Associated with the Use of 15-Passenger Vans
11A Summary of Constitutional History
12The Present Meaning of the First Amendment Religion Clauses
- § 12.01The Establishment Clause
  - § 12.01.01The Lemon Test
- § 12.02The Free Exercise Clause
  - § 12.02.01The Smith Case
  - § 12.02.02The Religious Freedom Restoration Act
  - § 12.02.03The City of Boerne Case
  - § 12.02.04Conclusions
13Significant First Amendment Issues
- § 13.01The Right to Witness
- § 13.02Prayer on Public Property other than Schools
- § 13.03Prayer During Public School Activities
- § 13.04Display of Religious Symbols on Public Property
- § 13.05Recurring Use of Public Property by Religious Congregations for Religious Services
- § 13.06Nonrecurring Use of Public Property by Adults for Religious Events and Activities
- § 13.07Use of Public School Property by Students for Religious Purposes
- § 13.08Sunday Closing Laws
- § 13.09The Right to Refuse Medical Treatment
- § 13.10Definition of "Religion" and "Religious"

Pastor, Church & Law

The Clergy-Penitent Privilege—Miscellaneous Issues §3.08

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Table of contents

1Definitions and Status

§ 1.01Distinctions Between the Terms Pastor, Clergy, Minister

§ 1.02Definition of the Terms Pastor, Clergy, Minister — In General

§ 1.03Status—Employee or Self Employed

§ 1.03.01Social Security

§ 1.03.02Income Taxes

§ 1.03.03Retirement Plans

§ 1.03.04Legal Liability

§ 1.03.05Miscellaneous Federal and State Statutes

§ 1.04Status—Ordained, Commissioned, or Licensed

2The Pastor-Church Relationship

§ 2.01Initiating the Relationship—In General

§ 2.01.01Congregational Churches

§ 2.01.02Hierarchical Churches

§ 2.01.03Compliance with a Church's Governing Instrument in the Selection of a Minister

§ 2.01.04Civil Court Review of Clergy Selection Disputes—the General Rule of Non-Intervention

§ 2.01.05Civil Court Review of Clergy Selection Disputes—Limited Exceptions to the General Rule

§ 2.01.06Negligent Selection

§ 2.02The Contract

§ 2.03Compensation

§ 2.04Termination

§ 2.04.01Civil Court Review of Clergy Termination Disputes—the General Rule of Non-Intervention

§ 2.04.02Civil Court Review of Clergy Termination Disputes—Limited Exceptions to the General Rule

§ 2.04.03Civil Court Review of Clergy Termination Disputes—"Exhaustion" of Ecclesiastical Remedies

3Authority, Rights, and Privileges

§ 3.01General Scope of a Minister's Authority

§ 3.02Officer of the Church Corporation

§ 3.03Property Matters

§ 3.04Performance of Marriage Ceremonies

§ 3.05Exemption from Military Duty

§ 3.06Exemption From Jury Duty

§ 3.07The Clergy-Penitent Privilege—In General

§ 3.07.01A "Communication"

§ 3.07.02Made in Confidence

§ 3.07.03To a Minister

§ 3.07.04Acting in a Professional Capacity as a Spiritual Adviser

§ 3.07.05In the Course of Discipline

§ 3.08The Clergy-Penitent Privilege—Miscellaneous Issues

§ 3.08.01Clergy-Parishioner Relationship

§ 3.08.02Marriage Counseling

§ 3.08.03Who May Assert the Privilege

§ 3.08.04When to Assert the Privilege

§ 3.08.05Waiver of the Privilege

§ 3.08.06The Privilege in Federal Courts

§ 3.08.07Constitutionality of the Privilege

§ 3.08.08Child Abuse Reporting

§ 3.08.09Confidentiality

§ 3.08.10Disclosure to Civil Authorities

§ 3.08.11Church Records

§ 3.08.12Death of the Counselee

§ 3.09Visiting Privileges at Penal Institutions

§ 3.10Immigration of Alien Ministers, Religious Vocations, and Religious Occupations

§ 3.11Miscellaneous Benefits

4Liabilities, Limitations, and Restrictions

§ 4.01Negligence

§ 4.02Defamation—In General

§ 4.02.01Pastors Who Are Sued for Making Defamatory Statements

§ 4.02.02Pastors Who Are Victims of Defamation

§ 4.02.03Defenses

§ 4.03Undue Influence

§ 4.04Invasion of Privacy

§ 4.05Clergy Malpractice

§ 4.06Contract Liability

§ 4.07Securities Law Violations

§ 4.08Failure to Report Child Abuse

§ 4.09Diversion of Church Funds

§ 4.10State Regulation of Psychologists and Counselors

§ 4.11Sexual Misconduct

§ 4.11.01Theories of Liability

§ 4.11.02Defenses to Liability

5Definitions

§ 5.01Tax Legislation—Federal

§ 5.01.01Churches

§ 5.01.02Mail Order Churches

§ 5.01.03Other Religious Organizations

§ 5.01.04Tax Legislation—State